(Starting from the Opium War, China's estimated GDP tanked, and the country basically entered its 'doomed' era.)
Western civilization leads the world now, but originally, the mainstream civilization of the Eurasian continent was East Asia.
From daily necessities like silk and porcelain to technological marvels like paper, gunpowder, and the compass—culture and civilization always spread from East to West via the Silk Road and maritime routes.
The period when the West eventually overtook the East is called the 'Great Divergence.'
There's a lot of debate about exactly when this happened. We can't pinpoint a specific date, but it's generally estimated to be between 1750 and 1800.
This is the main 'lore' pushed by economic historians known as the California School, who emerged in the 2000s and sparked a revisionist debate on East vs. West civilization.
To summarize their argument: up until the 18th century, there wasn't much difference in economy, income, technology, or living standards—in fact, the East was superior in most ways.
However, the gap widened after the discovery of the New World and as Europe (especially Britain) successfully transitioned to coal-based energy in the 18th century. That’s the gist of it.
Of course, this isn't the only theory; there are plenty of strong counterarguments. (For example, some see the binary split of 'East vs. West' as a logical fallacy in itself.)
So, how much better did the East live compared to the West before the Industrial Revolution or the Opium War? Opinions vary.
But one thing is certain: the West definitely overpowered the East in terms of military might.
The photo above is the 'Hongyipao' (Red-Barbarian Cannon).
If you've played Uncharted Waters 2, this is the 'Culverin'—the most expensive and best cannon you can buy late-game. It was originally imported to the Ming Dynasty via the Dutch.
Thanks to this cannon, the Ming were able to kill Nurhaci of the Later Jin at Shanhai Pass. And because of this cannon, the Qing Dynasty didn't dare cross Shanhai Pass until Wu Sangui surrendered.
This cannon also had a huge impact on Korean history. It was the weapon that forced King Injo to surrender during the Manchu invasion (Byeongja Horan).
Even when the capital Hanyang fell, King Injo stayed firm and refused to surrender. Even as the people who couldn't flee were being slaughtered everywhere, King Injo stayed firm. Even as the royal relief armies were getting absolutely wrecked and annihilated one by one, King Injo stayed firm. Even as food ran out in the besieged fortress and soldiers froze to death, he stayed firm. Even when Ganghwa Island fell and the crown prince and consorts were taken prisoner, he was like, 'I can never surrender to these barbarians!!' He resisted with sheer grit.
But the moment the Qing army dragged out the Hongyipao and started blasting Namhansanseong—hitting the very palace where Injo was staying—he suddenly realized his 'lack of virtue' and surrendered immediately.
And it wasn't just cannons. What about matchlocks? The matchlocks introduced to Japan by Portuguese traders ended over 100 years of civil war and helped unify Japan. We’ve heard way too many stories about how the Joseon army got pulverized by these new Western weapons during the Imjin War.
So, the West was already spreading its superior weapon tech and changing East Asian history as early as the 1600s.
The Opium War happened 200 years after that.
For context, the photo of the Hongyipao (Culverin) I posted earlier is actually from Gwangseongbo on Ganghwa Island. It was used by the Joseon army during the French and US expeditions in the 19th century. In other words, by the time the French and Americans invaded, nothing had changed since the 1590s or 1630s.
Joseon was still using 'scary new Western weapons' from 200 years ago. During those expeditions, the French and US troops could have literally gathered the Joseon army's gear and hosted an episode of 'Antiques Roadshow.'
The situation wasn't much different for the poor Qing Dynasty heading into the Opium War. Their main weapons were also 200-year-old 'cutting-edge' tech: Hongyipao and matchlocks.
Furthermore, the elite forces and the 'hope of the Qing'—the invincible Eight Banners—mostly used bows as their primary weapon. Archery and horsemanship were precious Manchu traditions, after all.
Even in the 1600s, Western weapons had already significantly outpaced Eastern technology.
By the 1800s, the weapon levels of the East and West weren't even comparable. The gap was a literal 'wall' that couldn't be climbed.
Then, on the decisive day of June 15, 1840, an Aegis-level cruiser fleet (hyperbole) equipped with laser beams and photon cannons (more hyperbole) arrived from far-off Britain at warp speed in the waters off Guangzhou.
It was Britain's state-of-the-art steam warship. And its name was the cool-as-hell 'Nemesis.' Sick.
(The most famous illustration of the Opium War)
The Opium War had begun. No matter how you look at it, it's impossible to defend Britain's actions. It was beyond messed up. They declared war because a country cracked down on the drugs they were illegally selling. It's a trash move with zero justification, unparalleled in history.
This wasn't just a modern take; people thought so back then, too. --- 'I do not know how it is a crime to refuse food supplies to foreigners who live in Chinese territory but refuse to follow its laws... I cannot judge how long this war will last... but this I can say: I have never seen or read in any book of a war more unjust than this, a war more calculated to cover this country with permanent disgrace.' --- From William Gladstone's speech in Parliament.
Basically, even the British Parliament at the time was like, 'Uh, guys... this is kind of embarrassing.'
But regardless, the war was already a done deal. The moment they sold the first batch of opium, the war was basically decided. They might not have known when they were doing legal trade, but once they started selling opium, the profit was just too 'sweet' (gaekkul). They realized China was a gold mine. There was a massive 'sucker' right in front of them; they couldn't just give up that easy money and go back to the boring old trade system.
Even if they were forced to stop, it wouldn't have lasted. Britain just needed any excuse for war in the near future. All that was left was the inevitable process of 'stepping on' China to expand 'noble free trade,' just as they had done in India.
Meanwhile, Lin Zexu was naively arguing about international law. He thought that since the British looked like humans, they must have at least some basic ethics.
But at the same time, Britain was already preparing for war. News that the British were expelled from Guangzhou reached London months later. By October, when the appeals from drug traffickers arrived, the Cabinet immediately decided to go to war. By the time the first Battle of Chuanbi broke out, they were already in the middle of mobilizing troops.
After all the war prep was done, they formally brought the motion to Parliament to ask for the final decision.
Basically, they packed all their tools to go rob a neighbor, then got together to have an 'emotional F-type' (MBTI reference) debate like, 'Hey, isn't this a bit much? But hey, we're not technically bad guys, right?' It’s that 'White Man's Burden' style of self-justification often seen in modern Western history.
The British had already started building a brand new iron-clad steamship to deploy to Asia. They named it 'Nemesis,' the goddess of revenge. That's the 'space battleship' in the photo above.
One interesting thing about the British Parliament's debate was that everyone agreed on one point: whether they were for or against the war, they all knew they would win. Britain already had extensive experience crushing local powers while conquering India. They knew they could easily steamroll a 'weak' (job-bap) Asian army.
It wasn't just a gap in combat power. Britain also knew the political strategy for dealing with the Qing. They had been trading for centuries, and Britain had even tried bribing the central government. They knew roughly how this pre-modern state system operated.
The progression of the Opium War makes this even clearer.
When the old Qing junk boats got absolutely destroyed by British warships in the first Battle of Chuanbi, Lin Zexu predicted Britain would soon attack Guangzhou and prepared thoroughly. He scrambled to buy 300 modern cannons from American merchants and placed them in 11 forts around Guangzhou. He cut off internal communication with Westerners, prepared 60 naval vessels, 10,000 regular troops, and even mobilized a militia. High-level 'Space Defense.'
So when the British expeditionary force arrived with 16 warships, 4 steamships, and 27 supply ships, they didn't even dare attack Guangzhou. In fact, they never planned to. They were like, 'Wow, Lin Zexu's defense is insane. But... so what?' and just ignored Guangzhou and sailed north.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
The first place the British expeditionary force invaded wasn't Guangzhou, where the trade dispute happened, but the mouth of the Yangtze River. Bypassing Guangzhou, they went straight for the Zhusan Archipelago.
The area Britain originally wanted to seize as a bridgehead wasn't Hong Kong, but here—the Zhusan Archipelago near Shanghai. It’s adjacent to the Jiangnan region, China’s economic heart, and makes it easy to advance inland along the river.
When the British arrived at Zhusan and tried to negotiate, their demand was basically: 'Give us food!' (Are they pirates or what?)
The Qing commander in charge of Zhusan, Zhang Zhaofa, was bewildered. 'Who the hell are these guys?' he thought. He obviously refused the random request, and the British were like, 'Okay, then,' and attacked immediately.
It wasn't even a battle, really. The British ships just blasted them with cannons and the defenses crumbled. There were about 2,000 soldiers defending Zhusan, but you could barely call them an army. It was a region that hadn't seen war for 100 years, so they had zero combat training. They were basically just laborers for camp maintenance. They tried their best to resist but failed. Zhang Zhaofa died in battle, the local magistrate Yao Huaxiang committed suicide by jumping into the water when the island fell, and the 2,000 soldiers all ran away.
The fact that Britain attacked Zhusan for supplies meant their real destination was elsewhere: Tianjin. Looking at the process, you can see the British already knew exactly where the vital points were. The British movements show this wasn't just some accidental, spur-of-the-moment war.
This port right next to Beijing was named 'Tianjin' (Heavenly Ford) because the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty used it for his expeditions. As the name suggests, it's the gateway to the capital, Beijing. Naturally, it had never been invaded by foreigners. In Korean terms, it's like Incheon in location, but in terms of mental impact, it’s like a Western fleet appearing at Mapo Wharf right next to the palace. Pure shock and horror.
Naturally, the Qing court flipped out. The trade dispute wasn't just a 'southern border' problem anymore; it was threatening the central government.
Terrified officials all rose up and started blaming Lin Zexu. They demanded that the British, who were now at Beijing's doorstep with warships and cannons, be appeased immediately. Records from the time show the petitions discussed in court were completely delusional. It’s unclear if the Qing bureaucracy was just broken or if they were all high on opium. The gap between reality and their records is hilariously absurd. The Qing court fell into a bizarre state where they only believed what they wanted to hear, and everyone treated lies as gospel.
For example: 'The British came to Tianjin to complain to the Emperor about their grievances. If we punish the bad Lin Zexu who bullied the poor British, they will be grateful and leave on their own.' ?????????? An army armed with cannons and bayonets is literally threatening them at their nose. Reality is right there, but it gets reported to the Emperor as a 'delegation appealing for justice.'
Here’s some unbelievable comedy: The British military sends an official letter --- 'Lin Zexu destroyed British property and insulted the dignity of Britain. We have sent the Royal Navy to demand an apology and compensation from the Qing Emperor.' --- Once this passes through a Qing official, it becomes --- 'Because Lin Zexu oppressed the British, the British King sent ships to the Emperor. They wish to petition the Emperor to clear their names and resolve their grievances.' --- This kind of report reaches Emperor Daoguang, who gives this absurd reply: --- 'I rule the whole world and treat all nations without bias. I am aware of the British grievances and will investigate and punish the offenders. Return to the south and await my command.' ---
And the fallout hit Lin Zexu in Guangzhou like a lightning bolt. --- 'Externally, you failed to stop the trade; internally, you failed to wipe out the criminals. You merely brushed things off with empty words. Not only did you accomplish nothing, but you caused massive trouble. I am so angry and frustrated I can hardly contain myself. How will you answer to me?' --- Lin Zexu was shocked and pleaded that he could repel the British if given military support, but the Emperor scolded him for talking nonsense when the British had 'already told their side,' and fired him.
Lin Zexu, not the Emperor, was the one who should've been frustrated. He was probably dying of internal rage (the '1 million sweet potatoes' feeling). The poor guy was exiled to Xinjiang in Central Asia. To fix this, the high-ranking Governor-General of Zhili, Qishan, stepped in. Daoguang told Qishan: 'The British came from far away, so give them plenty of travel money so they can be grateful for the Emperor's grace and go home.' This shows how delusional the court was. Qishan himself was originally a hardliner. 'Exterminate the Western barbarians!' He was a 'keyboard warrior' like all the other officials.
(The badass iron-clad steamship, Nemesis)
But once he actually boarded the 'space battleship' Nemesis that the British brought... 'Oh boy, what is this?!' Seeing the British troops holding 'laser cannons' in their hands... yeah, he realized this wasn't it. Qishan had an epiphany: 'Ah... we definitely shouldn't fight Britain!' He immediately flipped to the peace faction. The problem was, Qishan knew exactly what kind of clown show was happening in the Qing court. To survive, he had to get the British to leave Tianjin and go back to Guangzhou. That’s why he was sent, and that’s what the Emperor wanted. Otherwise, he’d end up like Lin Zexu.
He begged and pleaded with the British: 'Brothers, please... let's move the negotiations back to Guangzhou where we used to trade... TT' He even did something insane to 'reassure' the British: he disarmed Lin Zexu's 'Space Defense' in Guangzhou and dismantled the modern cannons Lin had worked so hard to set up. He cut the 10,000 troops to 2,000 and disbanded the city's volunteer militia. Then he bragged at the negotiation table: 'I fired the disloyal and foolish Lin Zexu! Guangzhou is disarmed and safe now!' He presented this as something the British should be happy about. The British commander was like, 'Pardon?? What are you talking about?' and replied: 'Actually, Lin Zexu was a very talented and brave governor. It’s just a shame he didn't know much about foreign affairs.'
Anyway, the British accepted the request and moved back to Guangzhou. When they actually withdrew, Daoguang praised Qishan for his 'great achievement' and appointed him as Imperial Commissioner with full powers to wrap things up. But once the British were out of sight, the Qing court—apparently filled with bird-brains—switched back to the pro-war faction. It's not like they had a plan to win; they just felt bold again because the enemy wasn't right in front of them. Like, damn, either fight from the start or stay quiet... you fire the competent commander and disarm the city, and NOW you want to fight? Qishan was in total despair. He was doomed. While he was hesitating and stalling, the British were like, 'Bro... you told us to come to Guangzhou, what's the deal? Something wrong?' and attacked Guangzhou.
That was the Second Battle of Chuanbi. The defenses Lin Zexu built, now in tatters due to the court's orders, were precision-sniped by the Nemesis's 'neutron lasers.' The Qing junk fleet was deleted by British 'Tomahawk missiles.'
This part is actually true. They used 'Congreve Rockets.' Think of them as a modernized version of the Singijeon. They could fly 2km and explode in the enemy camp. They were nicknamed '16kg love letters.' Then the British landed to take the forts. The places that were supposed to have 2,000 defenders only had 600 left due to the cuts. 1,500 British troops landed and attacked. Finally, on December 15, 1840, the forts fell, and Guangzhou was left completely wide open.
Realizing he was screwed, Qishan knew he couldn't wait any longer. He rushed to sign a treaty on January 20, 1841, known as the 'Convention of Chuanbi.' The terms: 1. Pay 6 million silver taels for the seized opium. 2. Open 5 major ports and cede Hong Kong to Britain (but taxes would still go to the Qing). 3. British citizens get status equal to the Qing Emperor. 4. Restore trade in Guangdong to pre-war status. As you can see, except for ceding Hong Kong, this was actually a 'sweet deal' for the Qing. Despite being at a massive military disadvantage, the terms didn't really hurt the Qing. There was even a side deal: Britain would 'pay' for Hong Kong using the 6 million silver taels of compensation the Qing was supposed to pay them. Basically, the Qing didn't have to pay a dime. Since he couldn't get silver from the court, Qishan used his big brain to craft this. From the Qing's perspective, giving up one rocky island to end a losing war was a massive win. Looking back, this treaty was so generous it’s almost enough to make you cry for British 'mercy.'
But contrary to Qishan's hopes, both Britain and the Qing rejected it. Britain didn't organize an expedition just to get Hong Kong. 'General Elliot, are you crazy???' As for the Qing, there was one clause that made them shake with rage: '3. British citizens get status equal to the Qing Emperor.' ???????? When this treaty became known, Daoguang went ballistic. Qishan was arrested, his entire fortune was confiscated, and he was exiled to the frozen Heilongjiang in Siberia. Daoguang condemned him: --- 'Qishan was intimidated by the British and made reckless, false reports. He said the geography was indefensible, the weapons were useless, the troops were weak, and the people were unstable. He created unnecessary fear to pressure the court. He betrayed my grace and ruined the country, losing his conscience entirely.' ---
Of course, it wasn't 'fear or exaggeration.' Everything Qishan reported was a cold, hard 'fact violence.' But just like Lin Zexu, Qishan got fed '1 million sweet potatoes' and was sent to exile. The Qing formally declared war. They sent the 'great general' Yang Fang to Guangzhou to 'exterminate the ignorant Western barbarians.' Yang Fang was a veteran who joined at 15 and fought in 55 battles, a marquis who was allowed to ride a horse in the Forbidden City. He boasted, 'I will show the barbarians the terror of the Celestial Empire!' But when he got to Guangzhou... 'What the hell?' In just 4 days, dozens of Qing junks were shredded like paper boats and the forts were demolished. He completely lost his mind.
He claimed the British were so good at shooting cannons because they were using 'evil sorcery!' He ordered people to collect women's chamber pot lids to 'break the evil spell.' Also, seeing what happened to his predecessor Qishan, he knew honesty was a death sentence. To survive, he started sending completely fake reports. When the British destroyed a fort and the Qing army fled, he reported that the British were 'just patrolling outside.' When he shot at a passing British ship out of fear, he reported that he 'sank two British warships and drowned dozens of troops.' He then boldly suggested: 'Since the enemy is terrified and deeply regretful, why don't we show mercy and grant them the trade they want and send them home?' In reality, he was begging for a ceasefire. Daoguang, oblivious to the truth, got even more arrogant: 'If I were going to forgive them so easily, why would I have sent a grand army! Make sure they don't escape and annihilate them all!'
Actually, for the people of Guangzhou, the real threat wasn't the British. It was the Emperor's army of 40,000 led by Yang Fang. They were just a mob of bandits. The Qing army, sent to 'protect' Guangzhou, actually spent their time looting, burning, raping, and murdering. Guangzhou wasn't being invaded by the British; it was being invaded by its own army. Unable to take it anymore, the people of Guangzhou armed themselves and started fighting back against the Qing army. Total chaos.
To recap: The central government disarmed a perfectly well-defended Guangzhou for no reason. The 'master general' sent to defend it was busy collecting women's urine and chamber pots. The 40,000 regular troops were pillaging and raping the city. The residents, whose homes were being trashed, revolted against their own army. And THEN the British actually landed for their grand offensive. ????????????? When the British attack finally began, the 'great general' Yang Fang stopped his 'brave' battle against the civilians and retreated 80 miles to hide from the British.
British records of the Opium War state that every time they captured a Qing camp, they always found opium. It shows how pathetic the discipline was. In contrast, the British were very proud of their discipline, fitting for the 'honor of the British Empire.' Well, according to their own records, anyway. Being the 'advanced' civilization, they claimed to be different from the 'barbaric' Qing. Major General Elliot forbade the tradition of taking 'war trophies'—which for British soldiers usually meant cutting off the queues (braids) of captured Chinese people as souvenirs.
The French, on the other hand, used a 'fun' technique they learned in the Americas and scalped the Chinese people. Compared to that, the British were 'rational' for just letting them live. They also set a 'principled' rule for supplies: 'Villages that give us what we want will be spared honorably; those that refuse will be annihilated.' A 'White Man's Burden' kind of thing. Even though Elliot proclaimed this 'rational' rule, the 'ignorant' Qing villagers were like, 'Wait, just giving you our stuff for free? Isn't that just looting?' Sadly, because of this 'misunderstanding,' the British army had no choice but to massacre them all.
This happened in the ancient trade port of Guangzhou. After the 'undisciplined' looting and massacre by the opium-addicted Qing army ended, the 'disciplined' looting and massacre by the civilized British army began. But there was exactly one moment when the British army almost got wiped out on Chinese soil: the Sanyuanli Incident.
After finishing their 'civilized and rational' looting and arson in Guangzhou, 6,000 British troops were stationed on the outskirts. Following their 'rational' rules, they were busy raiding nearby villages. In a village called Wulan-gang, British soldiers raped the wife of a farmer named Wei Shaoguang. The enraged villagers rose up, and 10,000 farmers surrounded the British. It happened to rain, soaking the gunpowder and making the British muskets useless. The surrounded British troops were stunned (dae-kkul-meong). The farmers, armed with pickaxes and shovels, showed incredible combat skill. They used flanking and luring tactics the regular Qing army never even tried, attacking the panicked British in the fields. The British suffered 4 deaths and 20 injuries—serious damage—and retreated.
The British fled and tried to resist using flintlock muskets that could fire in the rain. But the number of farmers grew to nearly 20,000, completely surrounding the British main force. The entire British expeditionary force was at risk of being annihilated by farmers with pickaxes. This was the most dangerous moment for the British in the entire Opium War. The war almost ended at the tip of a peasant's shovel. But...
"Readers are hooked by the high-quality storytelling and the 'face-palm' moments of the Qing Dynasty's incompetence. Some note the historical irony that a massive empire was 'softer' than much smaller tribal nations once their military gap was exposed."
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